Aaker, Jennifer and Angela Lee (2006),
"Understanding Regulatory Fit," Journal of Marketing Research,
43 (February), 15-19.
We focus on three critical areas of future research
on regulatory fit. The first focuses on how regulatory
orientation gets sustained. We argue that there are two
distinct approaches that bring about the 'just right feeling':
(1) process-based (involving the interaction between regulatory
orientation and decision making processes) and (2) outcome-based
(involving the interaction between regulatory orientation and framed
outcomes offered). Second, we discuss possible boundary
conditions of regulatory fit effects, highlight in particular the
apparent paradoxical role of involvement. We suggest that the
antecedents give rise to regulatory fit (e.g., lowered motivation)
may differ from its consequences (e.g., increased motivation).
Finally, we discuss broader implications of regulatory fit,
proposing three possible mechanisms by which regulatory fit may lead
to improved health and discussing the degree to which the 'just
right feeling' may play a role in goal-sustaining experiences
related to subjective well-being (e.g., flow).
Briley, Donnel and Jennifer Aaker (2006),
"When Does Culture Matter?
Effects of Cultural and Personal Knowledge on the Anchoring and Adjustment
of Judgments," forthcoming in Journal of Marketing Research.
Four experiments demonstrate that culture-based
differences in persuasion arise when information is processed in a
cursory, spontaneous manner, but dissipate when one's intuitions are
supplemented by more deliberative processing. North Americans
are more persuaded by promotion-focused information, and Chinese
individuals are more persuaded by prevention-focused information -
but only when initial, automatic reaction to messages are given.
Corrections to these default judgments occur when processing is
thoughtful. These results underscore the idea that culture
does not exert a constant, unwavering effect on consumer judgments.
One key factor in determining whether culture-based effects loom
large or disappear is the degree to which cultural versus more
personal knowledge is drawn upon when forming judgments.
Johar, Gita, Jaideep Sengupta and Jennifer Aaker (2005),
"Two Roads to
Updating Brand Personality Impressions: Trait versus Evaluative Inferencing,"
Journal of Marketing Research, (November), 458-469.
The research examines the dynamic process of
inference updating. The authors present a framework that
delineates two mechanisms that guide the updating of personality
trait inferences about brands. The results of three
experiments show that chronics (those for whom the trait is
accessible) updated their initial inferences on the basis of the
trait implications of new information. Notably, nonchronics
(those for whom the trait is not accessible) also update their
initial inferences, but they do so on the basis of the evaluative
implications of new information. The framework adds to the
inference-making literature by uncovering two distinct paths of
inferences updating and by emphasizing the moderating role of trait
accessibility. The findings have direct implications for
marketers attempting to understand the construction of brand
personality, and they emphasize the constantly evolving nature of
brand perceptions and the notion that both the consumer and the
marketer have important roles to play in this process.
Aaker, Jennifer, Susan Fournier and S. Adam Brasel (2004),
"When Good
Brands Do Bad," Journal of Consumer Research, 31 (June), 1-18*
-
Chosen as one of "The Top Marketing Papers of 2004" for reprint by
Mexican publication Expansion. Reprinted in Brand
Science Institute Yearbook 2004 (Hamburg), and 4P's, a publication of
the Indian Institute of Planning & Management.
This article reports results from a longitudinal
field experiment examining the evolution of consumer-brand
relationships. Development patterns differed, whereby
relationships with sincere brands deepened over time in line with
friendship templates, and relationships with exciting brands evinced
a trajectory characteristic of short-lived flings. These
patterns held only when the relationship proceeded without a
transgression. Relationships with sincere brands suffered in
the wake of transgressions, whereas relationships with exciting
brands surprisingly showed signs of reinvigoration after such
transgressions. Inferences concerning the brand's partner
quality mediated the results. Findings suggest a dynamic
construal of brand personality, greater attention to interrupt
events, and consideration of the relationship contracts formed at
the hands of different brands.
Lee, Angela
and Aaker, Jennifer (2004), "Bringing the Frame Into Focus: The
Influence of Regulatory Fit on Processing Fluency and Persuasion,"
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
86 (February) 205-218.
This research demonstrates the people's goals
associated with regulatory focus moderate the effect of message
framing on persuasion. The results of 6 experiments show that
appeals presented to gain frames are more persuasive when the
message is promotion focused, whereas loss-framed appeals are more
persuasive when the message is prevention focused. These
regulatory focus effects suggesting heightened vigilance against
negative outcomes and heightened eagerness toward positive outcomes
are replicated when perceived risk is manipulated. Enhanced
processing fluency leading to more favorable evaluations in
conditions of compatibility appears to underlie these effects.
The finds underscore the regulatory fit principle that accounts for
the persuasiveness of message framing effects and highlight how
processing fluency may contribute to the "feeling right" experience
when the strategy of goal pursuit matches one's goal.
Williams,
Patti and Jennifer Aaker (2002),
"Can Mixed Emotions Peacefully
Co-Exist?" Journal of Consumer Research, 28 (March),
636-649.
This research sheds insight on the psychological
impact of mixed emotions on attitudes. In three experiments,
we show that persuasion appeals that highlight conflicting emotions
(e.g., both happiness and sadness) lead to less favorable attitudes
for individuals with a lower propensity to accept duality (e.g.,
Anglo Americans, younger adults) relative to those with a higher
propensity (e.g., Asian Americans, older adults). The effect
appears to be due to increased levels of felt discomfort that arise
for those with a lower, but not higher, propensity to accept duality
when exposed to mixed emotional appeals. Theoretical
implications regarding boundary conditions of emotional dissonance
and distinctions between emotional and cognitive dissonance are
discussed.
Drolet, Aimee and Jennifer
Aaker (2002),
"Off Target? Changing Cognitive-Based Attitudes,"
Journal of Consumer Psychology,
12 (1), 59-68.
Researchers argue that the effectiveness of cognitive
versus affective persuasive appeals depends in part on whether the
appeal is congruent or incongruent with a primarily cognitive or
affective attitude base. However, considerable research
suggests these persuasion effects may hold only for predominantly
effective attitudes and not cognitive attitudes. Indeed,
results of Experiment 1 show that the relative effectiveness of
congruent relative to incongruent persuasion appeals holds for
brands with predominantly affective associations, but not those with
predominately cognitive associations. Experiment 2 explores
one reason for this anomalous finding: Cognitive attitudes may be
relatively impervious to persuasive appeals because the probability
of targeting the specific attribute on which the cognitive attitude
is based is smaller. The results are supportive, showing that
significant persuasion effects are found when the specific beliefs
on which cognitive attitudes are based are taken into account.
However, these effects only occur under conditions of low cognitive
load and not high cognitive lad where resources for the cognitive
processing of the appeals are limited. We discuss the
implications of the research for the role of attitude structure is
understanding persuasion effects and the interplay of affective and
cognitive elements in persuasion processes.
Aaker,
Jennifer, Veronica Benet-Martínez and Jordi Garolera (2001),
"Consumption Symbols as Carriers of Culture: A Study of Japanese and
Spanish Brand Personality Constructs," Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology (2001), 81 (3), 492-508.
This research argues that the meaning embedded in
consumption symbols, such as commercial brands, can serve to
represent and institutionalize the values and beliefs of a culture.
Relying on a combined emic-etic approach, the authors conducted 4
studies to examine how symbolic and expressive attributes associated
with commercial brands are structured and how this structure varies
across 3 cultures. Studies 1 and 2 revealed a set of "brand
personality" dimensions common to both Japan and the United States (Sincerity,
Excitement, Competence, and Sophistication) as well as
culture-specific Japanese (Peacefulness) and American (Ruggedness)
dimensions. Studies 3 and 4, which extended
this set of findings to Spain, yielded brand personality dimensions
common to both Spain and the United States (Sincerity,
Excitement, and Sophistication), plus nonshared Spanish (Passion)
and American (Competence and Ruggedness) dimensions.
The meaning of these brand personality dimensions is discussed in
the context of cross-cultural research on values and affect,
globalization issues, and cultural frame shifting.
Aaker, Jennifer and Bernd Schmitt (2001),
“Culture-Dependent Assimilation and Differentiation of the Self,”
Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 32
(September), 561-576.
In two studies, we investigate how differences
in self-construal patters affect preferences for consumption symbols
through the process of self-expression. The results of Study 1
demonstrate that individuals with a dominant independent
self-construal bold attitudes that allow them to express that they
are distinct from others. In contrast, individuals with a
dominant interdependent self-construal are more likely to hold
attitudes that demonstrate points of similarity with their peers.
Study 2 provides additional evidence for the mechanism presumed to
underlie the results by identifying differential schematic processes
as the driver of expressed preferences. We find that
differential levels of recall for similar and distinct items exist
across culturally-encouraged selves, documenting higher recall for
schema-inconsistent information. We discuss the results and
encourage future research that expands the framework to group
decisions and social preferences.
Aaker, Jennifer and Angela Lee (2001),
"I
Seek Pleasures, We Avoid Pains: The Role of Self Regulatory Goals in
Information Processing of Persuasion,"
Journal of
Consumer Research, 28 (June), 33-49.
In four experiments, we show that goals
associated with approach and avoidance needs influence persuasion
and that the accessibility of distinct self-views moderates these
effects. Specifically, individuals with an accessible
independent self-view are more persuaded by promotion-focused
information that is consistent with an approach goal. In
contrast, individuals whose interdependent self-view is more
accessible are more persuaded by prevention focused information that
is consistent with an avoidance goal. When the persuasive
appeal is compatible with self-regulatory focus, individuals
demonstrate greater recall of the message content and are more
discerning regarding argument strength. These findings provide
convergent evidence that central processing under goal compatible
conditions underlies the persuasion effects.
Lee, Angela, Jennifer
Aaker and Wendi Gardner (2000),
"The Pleasures and Pains of Distinct
Self-Construals: The Role of Interdependence in Regulatory Focus," Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 78
(June), 1122-1134.
Regulatory focus theory distinguishes
between self-regulatory processes that focus on promotion and
prevention strategies for goal pursuit. Five studies provide
support for the hypothesis that these strategies differ for
individuals with distinct self-construals. Specifically,
individuals with a dominant independent self-construal were
predicted to place more emphasis on promotion-focused information,
and those with a dominant interdependent self-construal on
prevention-focused information. Support for this hypothesis
was obtained for participants who scored high versus low on the
Self-Construal Scale, participants who were presented with an
independent versus interdependent situation, and participants from a
Western versus Easter culture. The influence of
interdependence on regulatory focus was observed in both importance
ratings of information and affective responses consistent with
promotion or prevention focus.
This research explores the extent to which
differences in perceived diagnosticity as compared with differences
in the accessibility of associations embedded in persuasion appeals
better account for the attitudinal differences found in the culture
and persuasion literature. Experiment 1 replicates basic
findings showing that high culture-distinct associations lead to
more favorable attitudes for individuals in the target culture
relative to a nontarget culture, while low culture-distinct
associations lead to more attitudinal similarities across cultural
boundaries. Experiments 2 and 3 explore two potential
explanations for these effects. Convergent evidence, provided
through within-culture and across-culture mediation analysis, is
more supportive of the differential accessibility explanation.
That is, high culture-distinct associations may be valued in the
nontarget culture but are relatively inaccessible in memory at an
individual level. The results of these experiments help to
reconcile conflicting findings in the consumer psychology
literature, shed insight on why cultural differences might occur,
and add to the growing body of research that identifies conditions
under which cultural similarities in persuasion processes and
effects may be found.
This research examines the effect of target
marketing on members of the advertiser's intended audience as well
as members not in the target market: the nontarget market.
The results of 3 experiments show that unfavorable nontarget market
effects are stronger for members of nondistinctive groups (e.g.,
Caucasian individuals, heterosexual individuals) and favorable
target market effects are stronger for members of distinctive groups
(e.g., African American individuals, homosexual individuals).
The results of Experiment 2 demonstrate that the psychological
processes by which target and nontarget market effects occur differ
by viewer group: Felt similarity with sources in an
advertisement drives target market effects for distinctive viewers,
whereas felt targetedness drives target market effects for
nondistinctive viewers. Finally, Experiment 3 shows that these
consumer feelings of similarity or targetedness are associated with
underlying processes of identification and internalization.
Theoretical implications regarding the impact of distinctiveness
theory in consumer persuasion effects and potential social effects
of target marketing are discussed.
Past research on dual process models of persuasion
has documented that, when faced with information incongruity,
individuals tend to form product evaluations by attenuating the less
diagnostic information, relying solely on the more diagnostic
information. The current research suggests that this way of
resolving incongruity may be culture specific. Consistent with
recent research in cultural psychology, this study shows that
individuals in a North American culture tend to follow the
attenuation strategy, whereas individuals in an East Asian culture
tend to follow an additive strategy in which both pieces of
information are combined to jointly influence evaluations
(Experiment 1). Experiments 2 and 3 provide further support
for the proposed psychological mechanism underlying these findings
and also identify boundary conditions for these findings.
Implications for understanding choice mind-sets, the moderating role
of justification on evaluations, and cultural limitations in
incongruity resolution are discussed.
Aaker,
Jennifer (1999),
"The Malleable Self: The Role of Self-Expression
in Persuasion," Journal of
Marketing Research, 36 (February), 45-57.
Considerable research in consumer experimental psychology has
examined the self-expressive role of brands that has found little
support for the premise that the interaction of the personality
traits associated with a brand and those associated with an
individual's self-concept influence attitudes. The current
research focuses on the influence of the malleable self-concept on
consumer attitudes toward a brand, based on its personality
associations. The results of two experiments demonstrate that
traits that are made accessible by salient situational cues and
those that are chronically accessible (schematic traits) positively
influence consumer attitudes toward a brand based on its personality
associations. More important, these effects are tested in a
set of theory-based interactions that rely on the self-monitoring
individual difference variable. Self congruity is enhanced for
low versus high self-monitoring subjects, whereas situation
congruity is enhanced for high versus low self-monitoring subjects.
Together, these experiments shed light on the self-expressive use of
brands and the role of the malleable self concept in influencing
consumer attitudes.
Aaker,
Jennifer and Patti Williams (1998),
"Empathy versus Pride: The
Influence of Emotional Appeals across Cultures," Journal of
Consumer Research, 25 (December), 241-261.
This research examines the
persuasive effect of emotional appeals on members of collectivist versus
individualist cultures. The results of two experiments demonstrate
that ego-focused (e.g., pride, happiness) versus other-focused (e.g.,
empathy, peacefulness) emotional appeals had to more favorable attitudes for
members of a collectivist culture, while other-focused versus ego-focused
emotional appeals lead to more favorable attitudes for members of an
individualist culture. Experiment 2 was conducted to examine the
psychological mechanism underlying these effects. The results
indicated that the generation of and elaboration on a relatively novel type
of thought (individual thoughts for members of a collectivist
culture, collective thoughts for members of an individualist
culture) account for the persuasive effects found in this research.
These results are interpreted within an ability-motivation
framework, and theoretical implications involving cross-cultural
persuasion effects are discussed.
Aaker,
Jennifer and Durairaj Maheswaran (1997),
"The Effect of Cultural
Orientation on Persuasion," Journal of Consumer Research, 24
(December), 315-328.
The
objective of this research is to assess the cross-cultural
generalizability of persuasion effects predicted by dual process
models. In two experiments, the impact of motivation,
congruity of persuasive communication and the diagnosticity of
heuristic cues on the processing strategies and product evaluations
of members of a collectivist culture were compared with findings
documented in past research in individualist cultures. This
research supports the view that perceptual differences in cue
diagnosticity account for systematic differences in persuasive
affects across cultures. It is also suggested that existing
theoretical frameworks, specifically the dual process models of
persuasion, are robust across cultures and can help predict and
explain cultural differences.
Aaker,
Jennifer (1997), "Dimensions of Brand Personality,"
Journal of
Marketing Research, 34 (August), 347-357. Reprinted in a book of readings, in
Decisions Marketing, April 1999, and Journal of Brand Management,
June 2001.
Although a considerable amount of research in personality psychology
has been done to conceptualize human personality, identify the "Big
Five" dimensions, and explore the meaning of each dimension, no
parallel research has been conducted in consumer behavior on brand
personality. Consequently, an understanding of the symbolic
use of brands has been limited in the consumer behavior literature.
In this research, the author develops a theoretical framework of the
brand personality construct by determining the number and nature of
dimensions of brand personality (Sincerity, Excitement, Competence,
Sophistication, and Ruggedness). To measure the five brand
personality dimensions, a reliable, valid, and generalizable
measurement scale is created. Finally, theoretical and
practical implications regarding the symbolic use of brands are
discussed.
Jennifer Lynn Aaker is a Professor of Marketing at The
Graduate School of Business, Stanford University.
Professor Aaker received her B.A. in Psychology from University of
California at Berkeley in 1989, and her Ph.D. in Marketing from Stanford
University’s Graduate School of Business (Ph.D. minor in Psychology).
Previously, Professor Aaker was on the faculty of the Anderson Graduate
School of Management, University of California, Los Angeles.
Professor Aaker's general area of expertise lies in consumer psychology,
focusing on how individuals across distinct cultural contexts can feel,
think and experience events in different ways. She also focuses on
understanding the emotional and self-expressive benefits of brands, and how
these benefits can help drive global brand strategies. Her research has been
published in the Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, Journal
of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal
of Consumer Psychology, and the Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology.
She also sits on the Editorial Review Board of the Journal of Consumer
Research (Associate Editor), Journal of Marketing Research and the Journal of Consumer
Psychology. At the GSB, she teaches the marketing core, an MBA elective
on brand planning and lectures in executive programs on that topic. She
has been honored with a number of awards, including the Distinguished
Teaching Award, Citibank Best Teacher Award, and the George Robbins Best
Teacher Award, the Fletcher Jones Faculty Research Scholar in 2000-2001 and
A. Michael Spence Scholar in 2003-2004.
Questions, problems, contact:
Richards_lea@gsb.stanford.edu
Page updated 5/11/05
